Abstract
The evolution of organised crime has undergone a profound transformation in the digital era, transitioning from traditional hierarchical mafia models to decentralized and sophisticated cybercrime networks. The proliferation of cybercrime, facilitated by online forums and marketplaces, has democratized access to criminal activities, enabling individuals with minimal technical expertise to participate and expanding the pool of potential offenders. Unlike traditional organised crime, cybercriminal networks rely on digital communication and decentralized structures, making them less vulnerable to conventional law enforcement strategies. These hybrid models of criminality, combining traditional methods with advanced cyber capabilities, present unique challenges to governance and security on both national and international levels.
This paper explores the dynamics and transnational complexity of modern organised crime, emphasizing the importance of global cooperation, public-private partnerships, and community resilience in addressing these evolving threats.
Keywords: Organised crime, cybercrime networks, digital technologies, decentralized structures, transnational crime, public-private partnerships, global cooperation, law enforcement strategies, governance, community resilience.
Introduction
The scientific study of organised crime has evolved significantly since the foundational works of Frederic Thrasher and John Landesco. However, despite decades of research, theoretical advancements in the field remain limited. Theorizing in organised crime studies is often closely linked to the development and application of models, which serve as simplified representations of complex social realities. While philosophical debates persist regarding the nature, purpose, and scope of scientific models, they provide valuable frameworks for understanding the structure and evolution of criminal organizations.This paper employs the “mafia or evolution-centralist model” as a descriptive framework to examine the transformation of organised crime over time.
Objective
The objective of this research is to analyze the evolution of organised crime from traditional mafia structures to modern cybercrime networks and examine the legal and policy responses to these changes. It aims to:
- Understand the transformation of organised crime in the digital era.
- Assess the effectiveness of national and international legal frameworks in combating cybercrime.
- Identify challenges law enforcement faces in addressing cyber-organised crime.
Methodology
This research employs a qualitative methodology, combining doctrinal legal research and case study analysis. It relies on secondary sources, including scholarly articles, legal texts, international conventions, and government reports, to examine the evolution of organised crime and the legal responses to cybercrime networks. Comparative legal analysis is used to assess different national and international regulatory frameworks. Additionally, case studies of cybercrime networks and law enforcement operations provide real-world insights into the effectiveness of legal and policy measures.
Definition of Organised Crime and Descriptive Models
The defining characteristic of organised crime is its structured and coordinated nature, distinguishing it from random or opportunistic criminal acts. Common elements of organised crime, as identified in scholarly literature (Albanese, Hagan, Maltz), include:
- A primary objective of financial profit is through illegal activities.
- The ability to exploit public demand for illicit goods and services.
- The use of corruption to facilitate and protect criminal operations.
- The application of threats, intimidation, and violence when necessary to maintain power and control.
Scholars such as Jay Albanese have categorized organised crime into three major descriptive models[1], of which the first model known as the Hierarchical model shall be the main focus of this paper. The Hierarchical Modeldenotes a bureaucratic structure with rigid leadership, exemplified by the American Cosa Nostra in the mid-20th century.[2]The Mafia or Evolution-Centralist Model as classified by Dickie and Wilson[3] issimilar to Albanese’s hierarchical model. This view associates organised crime with ethnically homogenous, bureaucratic organizations.Furthermore, Hagan’s Continuum or Ordinal Model[4] integrates various perspectives by assessing how closely a criminal group aligns with the traditional image of a bureaucratic mafia organization.
Traditional Organised Crime; Mafia Model: The hierarchical model of organised crime, defined by Cressey (1967),[5] describes structured criminal enterprises designed to maximize profits through illegal activities. Like legitimate businesses, these groups evolve to reduce costs, pool resources, and coordinate corruption, securing territorial or market monopolies. The Cosa Nostra exemplifies this model, with defined roles—enforcers, corrupters, and leaders—and a commission overseeing operations across regions. Often termed the “bureaucratic” or “corporate” model, this structure mirrors military or government hierarchies, where power flows from bosses to lieutenants and foot soldiers.[6]The evolution of organised crime cannot be understood in isolation from the broader socio-political and economic transformations of the 20th and 21st centuries. Traditional mafia structures, such as the Sicilian Cosa Nostra or the American La Cosa Nostra, emerged and thrived in contexts marked by state fragility, limited economic mobility, and community-based patronage systems. Their power was often territorial and grounded in the control of local economies, facilitated by hierarchical leadership and enforced through violence, corruption, and social codes such as omertà.However, the global landscape began to shift significantly in the aftermath of World War II and particularly during the Cold War period, which saw the emergence of transnational political rivalries, the proliferation of proxy conflicts, and the establishment of global trade routes. These developments opened new markets for arms, narcotics, and human trafficking—facilitating the international expansion of organised criminal groups. The collapse of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s created a vacuum in Eastern Europe and Central Asia, enabling the rise of powerful post-Soviet syndicates that combined traditional criminal methods with access to global financial systems.
Simultaneously, the late 20th century witnessed the rise of neoliberal economic policies, deregulation, and the global expansion of finance and communication technologies. As borders opened for trade, they also became more porous to illicit flows. The globalisation of economies created opportunities for criminal actors to launder money, manipulate international markets, and exploit disparities between legal jurisdictions. During this period, the dematerialization of value—from physical goods to financial instruments and digital assets—laid the groundwork for crimes that no longer depended on geographic presence.
The Mafia’s rigid hierarchical structure ensures discipline and operational efficiency. The Boss (Don, also known as “Capo di TuttiCapi” (Boss of Bosses).) is the ultimate authority, overseeing operations, resolving disputes, and collecting earnings.[7] The Underboss manages daily affairs and is the heir apparent.[8] The Consigliere acts as an advisor, offering counsel while remaining impartial.[9] Caporegimes (Capos) command crews of Soldiers, executing criminal activities.[10] Soldiers, or made men, are officially inducted members bound by Omertà, a code of silence.[11]Associates, though not official members, provide crucial services, including money laundering and enforcement.[12]
Globally, hierarchical groups persist, including Japan’s yakuza, China’s Triads, and Russia’s post-Soviet syndicates, which expanded into money laundering and political corruption. Organised crime structures vary from rigid hierarchies to decentralized networks. The standard hierarchy (e.g., Mafia, Yakuza) has a strict chain of command, while the regional hierarchy (e.g., Colombian cartels) grants autonomy to local factions. Clustered hierarchies (e.g., Russian syndicates) involve independent groups cooperating, and the core group model (e.g., cybercrime) relies on a small leadership with external operatives. The criminal network model (e.g., Triads, Nigerian cartels) is fluid and decentralized, enabling adaptability and evasion of law enforcement. While this model remains central to organised crime, many groups now adopt hybrid structures,[13] blending hierarchy with decentralized networks—most notably in the shift toward cybercrime.
[1]Albanese, J. Organized Crime in America, 2nd ed., Cincinnati, OH: Anderson; Albanese, J. (1994). ‘Models of Organized Crime’. In: R.J. Kelly, K.-L. Chin, & R. Schatzberg (eds.), Handbook of Organized Crime in the United States, (pp.77-90) Westport, CT: Greenwood; Albanese, J. (2011). Organized Crime in Our Times, 6th ed., Burlington, MA: Anderson. (1989).
[2] Cressey, D.R. Theft of the Nation: The Structure and Operations of Organized Crime in America, New York: Harper & Row. (1969).
[3] Dickie, P. & Wilson, P. (1993). “Defining Organised Crime: An Operational Perspective’, Current Issues in Criminal Justice 4(3), 215-224.
[4] Hagan, F.E., ‘The organized crime continuum: A further specification of a new conceptual model’, Criminal Justice Review 8(2), 52-57; Hagan, F.E. (2006), ‘Organized Crime’ and ‘organized crime’: Indeterminate Problems of Definition, Trends in Organized Crime 9(4), 127-137, (1983)
[5] Cressey, Theft of a Nation (n 16) 210, 228 and 316, and D R Cressey , Criminal Organization: Its Elementary Forms ( London , Heinemann Educational Books , 1972 ) .
[6] Peter Maas, The Valachi Papers, (1968)
[7] Blok, Anton. The Mafia of a Sicilian Village, 1860–1960: A Study of Violent Peasant Entrepreneurs. Harper & Row, 1974.
[8] Cressey, Donald R. Theft of the Nation: The Structure and Operations of Organized Crime in America. Harper & Row, 1969
[9] Gambetta, Diego. The Sicilian Mafia: The Business of Private Protection. Harvard University Press, 1993
[10] Paoli, Letizia. Mafia Brotherhoods: Organized Crime, Italian Style. Oxford University Press, 2003.].
[11]Raab, Selwyn. Five Families: The Rise, Decline, and Resurgence of America’s Most Powerful Mafia Empires. Thomas Dunne Books, 2005
[12] Schneider, Jane, and Peter Schneider. Reversible Destiny: Mafia, Antimafia, and the Struggle for Palermo. University of California Press, 2003
[13]Sergi A, From mafia to organised crime a comparative analysis of policing models. Palgrave
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